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Multics | A Wisdom Archive on Multics | | Multics A selection of articles related to Multics | |
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multics, Multics, Multics - Novel ideas, Multics - Overview, Multics - Project history, Multics - Retrospective observations, Fernando J. Corbató, leader of the project while M.I.T. was involved, Jerome H. Saltzer, Jack B. Dennis, Peter J. Denning, Robert M. Graham, Victor A. Vyssotsky
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| ARTICLES RELATED TO Multics | | | |  Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - CriticismA popular saying, repeated by such notable language designers as Bjarne Stroustrup, is that "C makes it easy to shoot yourself in the foot" [2] In other words, C permits many operations that are generally not desirable, and thus many simple errors made by a programmer are not detected by the compiler or even when they occur at runtime. This leads to programs with unpredictable behavior and security holes. In other words, "C is a sharp tool". It is certainly not a language for beginners in programming. The safe ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - Philosophy, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Usage, C programming language - Intermediate language, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Data structures, C programming language - Memory management, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - Related languages, C programming language - C++ Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Criticism |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - ARPANET - Initial ARPANET deployment The initial ARPANET consisted of four IMPs. They were installed at:
UCLA, where Leonard Kleinrock had established a Network Measurement Center (with an SDS Sigma 7 being the first computer attached to it).
The Stanford Research Institute's Augmentation Research Center, where Douglas Engelbart had created the ground-breaking NLS system, a very important early hypertext system (with the SDS 940 that ran NLS, named 'Genie', being the first host attached).
The UCSB (with the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Cen ...
See also:ARPANET, ARPANET - Background of the ARPANET, ARPANET - Origins of the ARPANET, ARPANET - Creation of the ARPANET, ARPANET - Initial ARPANET deployment, ARPANET - Software and protocol development, ARPANET - Applications, ARPANET - Growth of the network, ARPANET - Later hardware developments, ARPANET - The ARPANET and nuclear attacks, ARPANET - Trivia, ARPANET - Retrospective, ARPANET - Notes Read more here: » ARPANET: Encyclopedia II - ARPANET - Initial ARPANET deployment |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - TWX Almost in parallel with Germany's telex system, AT&T in the 1930s decided to go telex one better, and began developing a similar service (with pulse dialing among other features) called "Teletype Wide-area eXchange" (TWX). AT&T, also known as the Bell system, acquired the Teletype Corporation in 1930 and used its teleprinters for TWX.
TWX originally ran 75 bits per second, sending Baudot code and dial selection. However, Bell later developed a second generation of "four row" modems called the "Bell 101 dataset", which is the d ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - TWX |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - History
C programming language - Early developments.
The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called "B". Accounts differ regarding the origins of the name "B": Ken Thompson credits the BCPL programming language, but he had also created ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - Philosophy, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Usage, C programming language - Intermediate language, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Data structures, C programming language - Memory management, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - Related languages, C programming language - C++ Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - History |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Usage One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often implemented in C.
C programming language - Intermediate language.
C is used as an intermediate language by some high-level languages (Eiffel, Sather, Esterel) which do not output object or machine code, but output C source code only, to submit to a C compiler, which then outputs finished object or machine code. This is done to gain portability and optimization. ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - Philosophy, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Usage, C programming language - Intermediate language, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Data structures, C programming language - Memory management, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - Related languages, C programming language - C++ Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Usage |
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| | | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system International Telex remains available via e-mail ports. It is one's e-mail address with numeric or alpha prefixes specifying one's IRC and account.
Telex has always had a feature called "answerback" that asks a remote machine to send its address. If one is using telex via e-mail, this address is what a remote telex user will want in order to contact an e-mail user.
Some companies, like Western Union and Swedish Telia still deliver Telegrams, but they serve as nostalgic ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - PL/I - Retrospective PL/I was not as successful as originally hoped for a number of reasons.
Perhaps most important was that although the language was easy to learn and to use, implementing a PL/I compiler was difficult and time-consuming. This was at least partially a result of having been designed by a committee, and the desire to supply the needs of very different types of users (business and scientific). Such delays, its complexity, and the low quality of early versions of IBM's PL/I compiler discouraged users from switching from COBOL or Fortran. It ...
See also:PL/I, PL/I - Details, PL/I - History of PL/I, PL/I - Retrospective, PL/I - Sample programs, PL/I - Hello World 2, PL/I - Standards Read more here: » PL/I: Encyclopedia II - PL/I - Retrospective |
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| | | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy Nikola Tesla and other scientists and inventors showed the usefulness of wireless telegraphy, radiotelegraphy, or radio, beginning in the 1890s. Alexander Stepanovich Popov demonstrated to wide public his receiver of wireless telegraphy signals, called lightning detector, on May, 7 of 1895. In 1898 Popov accomplished successful experiments of communication by wireless telegraphy between naval base and a battle ship. In 1900 crew of Russian battle ship General-Admiral Apraksin as well as stranded Finnish fishermen were saved in the Gul ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy |
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| | | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements A continuing goal in telegraphy has been to reduce the cost per message by reducing hand-work, or increasing the sending rate. There were many experiments with moving pointers, and various electrical encodings. However, most systems were too complicated and unreliable. A successful expedient to increase the sending rate was the development of telegraphese.
With the invention of the teletypewriter, telegraphic encoding became fully automated. Early teletypewriters used Baudot code, a 5-bit code. This yielded only thirty two codes, so it was over-defined into two "shifts," "letters" and "figures." An explicit, unshar ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Newline - Representations Software applications and operating systems usually represent the newline with one or two control characters:
Systems based on ASCII or a compatible character set use either LF (Line Feed, 0x0A) or CR (Carriage Return, 0x0D) individually, or CR followed by LF (CR+LF, 0x0D 0x0A).
LF: Unix and Unix-like systems, AIX, Xenix, Mac OS X, BeOS, Amiga, RISC OS and others
CR+LF: CP/M, MP ...
See also:Newline, Newline - Representations, Newline - Unicode, Newline - History, Newline - Newline in programming languages, Newline - Common problems, Newline - Conversion utilities Read more here: » Newline: Encyclopedia II - Newline - Representations |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs The first electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling in 1832. The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke and entered use on the Great Western Railway. It ran for 13 miles from Paddington station to West Drayton and came into operation on April 9, 1839. It was patented in the United Kingdom in 1837.
An electrical telegraph was independently developed and patented in the United States in 1837 by Samuel Morse. He developed the Morse code signalling al ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet Around 1965, DARPA commissioned a study of decentralized switching systems. Some of the ideas developed in this study provided inspiration for the development of the ARPANET packet switching research network, which later grew to become the public Internet.
The Internet was a radical break in three ways. First, it was designed to operate over any media. Second, routing was decentralized. Third, large messages were broken into fixed size packets, and then reassembled at the destination. All previous networks had used controlled media, c ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - VME - Application Development Tools The application development tools offered with VME fall into two categories:
third-generation programming languages
fourth-generation QuickBuild toolset.
The toolset on VME is unusually homogenous, with most customers using the same core set of languages and tools. As a result, the tools are also very well integrated. Third-party tools have made relatively little impression.
For many years the large majority of VME users wrote applications in COBOL, usually making use of the IDMS database and the TP ...
See also:VME, VME - Origins, VME - Architecture, VME - OMF, VME - SCL, VME - Series 39, VME - Development process, VME - Application Development Tools, VME - SFL, VME - Quickbuild, VME - Sources Read more here: » VME: Encyclopedia II - VME - Application Development Tools |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals The first telegraphs were optical telegraphs, including the use of smoke signals and beacons. These have existed since ancient times. A semaphore network invented by Claude Chappe operated in France from 1792 through 1846. It helped Napoleon enough that it was widely imitated in Europe and the U.S. The last (Swedish) commercial semaphore link left operation in 1880.
Semaphores were able to convey information more precisely than smoke signals and beacons and consumed no fuel. Messages could be sent at much greater speed than post rider ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - VME - Development process VME is written entirely in S3, a specially-designed system programming language based on Algol 68. Although a high-level language is used, the operating system is not designed to be independent of the underlying hardware architecture: on the contrary, the software and hardware architecture are closely integrated.
From its earliest days, VME was developed with the aid of a software engineering repository known as CADES, built for the purpose using an underlying IDMS database. CADES is not merely a version control system for code modules: it manages all aspects of the software lifecycle from require ...
See also:VME, VME - Origins, VME - Architecture, VME - OMF, VME - SCL, VME - Series 39, VME - Development process, VME - Application Development Tools, VME - SFL, VME - Quickbuild, VME - Sources Read more here: » VME: Encyclopedia II - VME - Development process |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs The first electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling in 1832. The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke and entered use on the Great Western Railway. It ran for 13 miles from Paddington station to West Drayton and came into operation on April 9, 1839. It was patented in the United Kingdom in 1837.
An electrical telegraph was independently developed and patented in the United States in 1837 by Samuel Morse. He developed the Morse code signalling alphabet with his assistant, Alfred Vail. The Morse/Vail telegrap ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system International Telex remains available via e-mail ports. It is one's e-mail address with numeric or alpha prefixes specifying one's IRC and account.
Telex has always had a feature called "answerback" that asks a remote machine to send its address. If one is using telex via e-mail, this address is what a remote telex user will want in order to contact an e-mail user.
Some companies, like Swedish Telia still deliver telegrams, but they serve as nostalgic novelty items rather than a primary means of communication. On January 27, 2006, Western U ...
See also:Telegraphy, Telegraphy - Optical telegraphs and smoke signals, Telegraphy - Electrical telegraphs, Telegraphy - Radiotelegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphic improvements, Telegraphy - Telex, Telegraphy - TWX, Telegraphy - Arrival of the Internet, Telegraphy - E-mail starts to displace telegraphy, Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system Read more here: » Telegraphy: Encyclopedia II - Telegraphy - Telegraphy as a legacy system |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - VME - Origins VME was first announced under the name VME/B as the operating system for the ICL New Range of mainframes (2900 Series). A number of influences can be seen in its design, for example Multics and ICL's earlier George 3 operating system; however it was essentially designed from scratch.
Most of the design and development took place at ICL's facilities in Kidsgrove, Staffordshire and Manchester, UK. The chi ...
See also:VME, VME - Origins, VME - Architecture, VME - OMF, VME - SCL, VME - Series 39, VME - Development process, VME - Application Development Tools, VME - SFL, VME - Quickbuild, VME - Sources Read more here: » VME: Encyclopedia II - VME - Origins |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Lisp programming language - Genealogy and variants Over its almost fifty-year history, Lisp has spawned many variations on the core theme of an S-expression language. Moreover, each given dialect may have several implementations – for instance, there are more than a dozen implementations of Common Lisp.
Differences between dialects may be quite significant – for instance, Common Lisp and Scheme do not even use the same keyword to define functions! Within a dialect that is standardized, however, conforming implementations support ...
See also:Lisp programming language, Lisp programming language - The invention of Lisp: 1958-1962, Lisp programming language - Curiosities of the early history, Lisp programming language - Lisp and AI, Lisp programming language - Lisp today, Lisp programming language - Language innovations, Lisp programming language - Syntax and semantics, Lisp programming language - Lambda expressions, Lisp programming language - Conses and lists, Lisp programming language - Self-evaluating forms and quoting, Lisp programming language - Scope and closure, Lisp programming language - List structure of program code, Lisp programming language - Evaluation and the Read-Eval-Print Loop, Lisp programming language - Control structures, Lisp programming language - Examples, Lisp programming language - Object systems, Lisp programming language - Genealogy and variants, Lisp programming language - Major modern dialects, Lisp programming language - Historically significant dialects, Lisp programming language - Minor dialects, Lisp programming language - Miscellaneous implementations, Lisp programming language - Related languages, Lisp programming language - Quotations Read more here: » Lisp programming language: Encyclopedia II - Lisp programming language - Genealogy and variants |
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