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Multics | A Wisdom Archive on Multics | | Multics A selection of articles related to Multics | |
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multics, Multics, Multics - Novel ideas, Multics - Overview, Multics - Project history, Multics - Retrospective observations, Fernando J. Corbató, leader of the project while M.I.T. was involved, Jerome H. Saltzer, Jack B. Dennis, Peter J. Denning, Robert M. Graham, Victor A. Vyssotsky
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| ARTICLES RELATED TO Multics | | | |  Multics: Encyclopedia II - Lisp programming language - Genealogy and variantsOver its almost fifty-year history, Lisp has spawned many variations on the core theme of an S-expression language. Moreover, each given dialect may have several implementations – for instance, there are more than a dozen implementations of Common Lisp.
Differences between dialects may be quite significant – for instance, Common Lisp and Scheme do not even use the same keyword to define functions! Within a dialect that is standardized, however, conforming implementations support ...
See also:Lisp programming language, Lisp programming language - History, Lisp programming language - Syntax and Semantics, Lisp programming language - Lambda expressions, Lisp programming language - Conses and lists, Lisp programming language - Self-evaluating forms and quoting, Lisp programming language - Scope and closure, Lisp programming language - List structure of program code, Lisp programming language - Evaluation and the Read-Eval-Print Loop, Lisp programming language - Control structures, Lisp programming language - Examples, Lisp programming language - Object systems, Lisp programming language - Genealogy and variants, Lisp programming language - Major modern dialects, Lisp programming language - Historically significant dialects, Lisp programming language - Minor Dialects, Lisp programming language - Miscellaneous implementations, Lisp programming language - Related languages, Lisp programming language - Quotations Read more here: » Lisp programming language: Encyclopedia II - Lisp programming language - Genealogy and variants |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Standards Beginning in the late 1980s, an open operating system standardization effort known as POSIX provided a common baseline for all operating systems; IEEE based POSIX around the structure of the Unix system. At around the same time a separate but very similar standard, the Single UNIX Specification, was also produced by the Open Group. Starting in 1998 these two standards bodies began work on merging the two standards, and the latest revisi ...
See also:Unix, Unix - History, Unix - 1960s and 1970s, Unix - 1980s, Unix - 1990s, Unix - 2000s, Unix - Standards, Unix - List of Unixes, Unix - Research Unix, Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants, Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems, Unix - Impact, Unix - Branding, Unix - Canonical Unix Commands, Unix - Sources Read more here: » Unix: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Standards |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Branding In 1994, Novell, the company that owned the rights to the Unix System V source at the time, sold the trademarks of Unix to the X/Open Company (now The Open Group), and sold the related business operations to Santa Cruz Operation. Whether Novell also sold the copyrights to the actual software is currently the subject of litigation in SCO v. Novell.
By decree of The Open Group, the term "UNIX" refers more to a class of operating systems than to a specific implementation of an operating system; those operating systems which meet The Open ...
See also:Unix, Unix - History, Unix - 1960s and 1970s, Unix - 1980s, Unix - 1990s, Unix - 2000s, Unix - Standards, Unix - List of Unixes, Unix - Research Unix, Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants, Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems, Unix - Impact, Unix - Branding, Unix - Canonical Unix Commands, Unix - Sources Read more here: » Unix: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Branding |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Canonical Unix Commands The most basic Unix commands and utilities are:
Directory and file creation and navigation: ls cd pwd mkdir rm rmdir cp find
File viewing and editing: touch more ed vi emacs ex
Text processing: echo cat grep sort uniq sed awk tail tee head cut tr split printf
File comparison: comm cmp diff patch
Misc shell tools: yes test xargs
System administration: chmod chown ps su w who
Communication: mail telnet ftp finger ssh
Shells: sh bash csh ksh tcsh
These are the 60 us ...
See also:Unix, Unix - History, Unix - 1960s and 1970s, Unix - 1980s, Unix - 1990s, Unix - 2000s, Unix - Standards, Unix - List of Unixes, Unix - Research Unix, Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants, Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems, Unix - Impact, Unix - Branding, Unix - Canonical Unix Commands, Unix - Sources Read more here: » Unix: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Canonical Unix Commands |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Impact The Unix system had a great impact on the surrounding community. Some consider it the most influential operating system in changing other proprietary operating systems, leading Unix to be called "the most important operating system you may never use."
Following the lead of Multics, it was written in high level language as opposed to assembler (assembler was in vogue at the time).
It had a drastically simplified file model compared to many contemporary operating systems. The file system hierarchy contained machine services and d ...
See also:Unix, Unix - History, Unix - 1960s and 1970s, Unix - 1980s, Unix - 1990s, Unix - 2000s, Unix - Standards, Unix - List of Unixes, Unix - Research Unix, Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants, Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems, Unix - Impact, Unix - Branding, Unix - Canonical Unix Commands, Unix - Sources Read more here: » Unix: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Impact |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems In 1983, Richard Stallman announced the GNU project, an ambitious effort to create a free software Unix-like system; "free" in that everyone who received a copy would be free to use, study, modify, and redistribute it. GNU's goal was achieved in 1992. Its own kernel development project, GNU Hurd, had not produced a working kernel, but a compatible kernel called Linux was released as free software in 1992 (under the GNU General Public License). These "GNU/Linux" systems are commonly referred to as just Linux ...
See also:Unix, Unix - History, Unix - 1960s and 1970s, Unix - 1980s, Unix - 1990s, Unix - 2000s, Unix - Standards, Unix - List of Unixes, Unix - Research Unix, Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants, Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems, Unix - Impact, Unix - Branding, Unix - Canonical Unix Commands, Unix - Sources Read more here: » Unix: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Research Unix
Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants.
Each of the systems in this list is evolved from the version before, with Unix System III evolving from both the UNIX Time-Sharing System v7 and the descendants of the UNIX Time-Sharing System v6.
Unix System III (1981)
Unix System IV (1982)
Unix System V (1983)
Unix System V Release 2 (1984)
Unix System V Release 3.0 (1986)
Unix System V Release 3.2< ...
See also:Unix, Unix - History, Unix - 1960s and 1970s, Unix - 1980s, Unix - 1990s, Unix - 2000s, Unix - Standards, Unix - List of Unixes, Unix - Research Unix, Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants, Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems, Unix - Impact, Unix - Branding, Unix - Canonical Unix Commands, Unix - Sources Read more here: » Unix: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Research Unix |
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| | | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Relation to C++ The C++ programming language was originally derived from C. However, not every C program is a valid C++ program. As C and C++ have evolved independently, there has been an increase in the number of incompatibilities between the two languages [4]. The latest revision of C, C99, created a number of additional conflicting features. The differences make it hard to write programs and libraries that are compiled and function correctly as either C or C++ code, and confuse those who program in both languages. The disparity also makes it hard ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - Features, C programming language - Overview, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Types, C programming language - Unification of arrays and pointers, C programming language - Data storages, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance problems, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Relation to C++, C programming language - Intermediate language Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Relation to C++ |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Database management system - Terminology A database management system (DBMS) is a system, usually automated and computerized, for the management of any collection of compatible, and ideally normalized, data.
A database application is computer software written to manage the data of a particular application or problem.
...
See also:Database management system, Database management system - Terminology, Database management system - History, Database management system - Navigational DBMS, Database management system - Relational DBMS, Database management system - SQL DBMS, Database management system - Object-oriented DBMS, Database management system - Description Read more here: » Database management system: Encyclopedia II - Database management system - Terminology |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - History
C programming language - Early developments.
The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called "B". Accounts differ regarding the origins of the name "B": Ken Thompson credits the BCPL programming language, but he had also created ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - Features, C programming language - Overview, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Types, C programming language - Unification of arrays and pointers, C programming language - Data storages, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance problems, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Relation to C++, C programming language - Intermediate language Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - History |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Criticism A popular saying, repeated by such notable language designers as Bjarne Stroustrup, is that "C makes it easy to shoot yourself in the foot" [1] In other words, C permits many operations that are generally not desirable, and thus many simple errors made by a programmer are not detected by the compiler or even when they occur at runtime. This leads to programs with unpredictable behavior and security holes. In other words, "C is a sharp tool". It is certainly not a language for beginners in programming. The safe ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - Features, C programming language - Overview, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Types, C programming language - Unification of arrays and pointers, C programming language - Data storages, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance problems, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Relation to C++, C programming language - Intermediate language Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Criticism |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Related languages
C programming language - C++.
The C++ programming language was originally derived from C. However, not every C program is a valid C++ program. As C and C++ have evolved independently, there has been an increase in the number of incompatibilities between the two languages [4]. The latest revision of C, C99, created a number of additional conflicting features. The differences make it hard to write programs and libraries that are compiled and function correctly as either C or C++ code, and confuse those who program in both languages. The disparity also makes it ha ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Philosophy, C programming language - Usage, C programming language - Intermediate language, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Data structures, C programming language - Memory management, C programming language - Overview, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - Related languages, C programming language - C++ Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Related languages |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Usage One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often implemented in C.
C programming language - Intermediate language.
C is used as an intermediate language by some high-level languages (Eiffel, Sather, Esterel) which do not output object or machine code, but output C source code only, to submit to a C compiler, which then outputs finished object or machine code. This is done to gain portability and optimization. ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Philosophy, C programming language - Usage, C programming language - Intermediate language, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Data structures, C programming language - Memory management, C programming language - Overview, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - Related languages, C programming language - C++ Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Usage |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Database management system - Description A DBMS can be an extremely complex set of software programs that controls the organization, storage and retrieval of data (fields, records and files) in a database. The basic functionalities that a DBMS must provide are:
A modeling language to define the schema of each database hosted in the DBMS, according to the DBMS data model.
The three most common organizations are the hierarchical, network and relational models. A database management system may provide one, two or all three methods. Inverted lists and other method ...
See also:Database management system, Database management system - Terminology, Database management system - History, Database management system - Navigational DBMS, Database management system - Relational DBMS, Database management system - SQL DBMS, Database management system - Object-oriented DBMS, Database management system - Description Read more here: » Database management system: Encyclopedia II - Database management system - Description |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - History of the Internet - Before the Internet
History of the Internet - A Lack of Inter-Networking.
Prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network. Some networks would have gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long ...
See also:History of the Internet, History of the Internet - Before the Internet, History of the Internet - A Lack of Inter-Networking, History of the Internet - Three Terminals and an ARPA, History of the Internet - Switched Packets, History of the Internet - The networks that would lead to the Internet, History of the Internet - ARPANET, History of the Internet - X.25 and public access, History of the Internet - UUCP, History of the Internet - Merging the Networks and creating the Internet, History of the Internet - TCP/IP, History of the Internet - ARPANET to NSFNet, History of the Internet - The transition towards an Internet, History of the Internet - CERN the European Internet the link to the Pacific and beyond, History of the Internet - A digital divide, History of the Internet - Opening the network to Commerce, History of the Internet - The IETF and a standard for standards, History of the Internet - NIC InterNIC IANA and ICANN, History of the Internet - Use and Culture, History of the Internet - Email and Usenet—The growth of the text forum, History of the Internet - A world library—From Gopher to the WWW, History of the Internet - Finding what you need—The Search Engine, History of the Internet - The Dot-com Bubble Read more here: » History of the Internet: Encyclopedia II - History of the Internet - Before the Internet |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - History of the Internet - The networks that would lead to the Internet
History of the Internet - ARPANET.
Promoted to the head of the information processing office at ARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in Larry Roberts from M.I.T, he initiated a project to start such a network. The first ARPANET link was established on 21 November 1969, between the University of California, Los Angeles and The Stanford Research Institute. By 5 December 1969, a 4-node network was connected, adding the University of Utah and the U ...
See also:History of the Internet, History of the Internet - Before the Internet, History of the Internet - A Lack of Inter-Networking, History of the Internet - Three Terminals and an ARPA, History of the Internet - Switched Packets, History of the Internet - The networks that would lead to the Internet, History of the Internet - ARPANET, History of the Internet - X.25 and public access, History of the Internet - UUCP, History of the Internet - Merging the Networks and creating the Internet, History of the Internet - TCP/IP, History of the Internet - ARPANET to NSFNet, History of the Internet - The transition towards an Internet, History of the Internet - CERN the European Internet the link to the Pacific and beyond, History of the Internet - A digital divide, History of the Internet - Opening the network to Commerce, History of the Internet - The IETF and a standard for standards, History of the Internet - NIC InterNIC IANA and ICANN, History of the Internet - Use and Culture, History of the Internet - Email and Usenet—The growth of the text forum, History of the Internet - A world library—From Gopher to the WWW, History of the Internet - Finding what you need—The Search Engine, History of the Internet - The Dot-com Bubble Read more here: » History of the Internet: Encyclopedia II - History of the Internet - The networks that would lead to the Internet |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Emacs - Using Emacs
Emacs - Commands.
From the Unix shell, a file can be opened for editing by typing "emacs [filename]". If the filename you entered does not exist a file will be created with that name. For example "emacs xorg.conf" will edit the xorg.conf file in the current directory, if it exists. However, Emacs documentation recommends starting Emacs without a file name, to avoid the bad habit of starting a separate Emacs for each file you edit. Visiting all files in a single Emacs process is the ...
See also:Emacs, Emacs - History, Emacs - Features, Emacs - Platforms, Emacs - Editing modes, Emacs - Customization, Emacs - Documentation, Emacs - Internationalization, Emacs - License, Emacs - Using Emacs, Emacs - Commands, Emacs - The minibuffer, Emacs - File management and display Read more here: » Emacs: Encyclopedia II - Emacs - Using Emacs |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Philosophy C is a relatively minimalistic programming language. Among its design goals was that it be straightforwardly compilable by a single pass compiler — that is, that just a few machine language instructions would be required for each of its core language elements, without extensive run-time support. A single pass compiler is one that can compile a source program without having to search backwards in the source file. This is why a prototype is required if a call to a function appears before its definition. It is quite possible to write C code a ...
See also:C programming language, C programming language - History, C programming language - Early developments, C programming language - K&R C, C programming language - ANSI C and ISO C, C programming language - C99, C programming language - Philosophy, C programming language - Usage, C programming language - Intermediate language, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - hello world example, C programming language - Data structures, C programming language - Memory management, C programming language - Overview, C programming language - Criticism, C programming language - Memory allocation, C programming language - Pointers, C programming language - Arrays, C programming language - Variadic functions, C programming language - Syntax, C programming language - Maintenance, C programming language - Compiler-external static-checking tools, C programming language - Related languages, C programming language - C++ Read more here: » C programming language: Encyclopedia II - C programming language - Philosophy |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Emacs - History Emacs began life at the MIT AI Lab during the 1970s. Prior to its introduction, the default editor on ITS, the operating system on the AI Lab's PDP-6 and PDP-10 computers, was a line editor known as TECO. Unlike modern text editors, TECO treated typing, editing, and document display as separate modes, like the later vi would. Typing characters into TECO did not place those characters directly into a document; one had to write a series of instructions in the TECO command language telling it to enter the required characters, during which time the edited text was not displayed on the screen. This behavior is similar to the p ...
See also:Emacs, Emacs - History, Emacs - Features, Emacs - Platforms, Emacs - Editing modes, Emacs - Customization, Emacs - Documentation, Emacs - Internationalization, Emacs - License, Emacs - Using Emacs, Emacs - Commands, Emacs - The minibuffer, Emacs - File management and display Read more here: » Emacs: Encyclopedia II - Emacs - History |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems In 1983, Richard Stallman announced the GNU project, an ambitious effort to create a free software Unix-like system; "free" in that everyone who received a copy would be free to use, study, modify, and redistribute it. GNU's goal was achieved in 1992. Its own kernel development project, GNU Hurd, had not produced a working kernel, but a compatible kernel called Linux was released as free software in 1992 (under the GNU General Public License). These "GNU/Linux" systems are commonly referred to as just ...
See also:Unix, Unix - History, Unix - 1960s and 1970s, Unix - 1980s, Unix - 1990s, Unix - 2000s, Unix - Standards, Unix - List of Unixes, Unix - Research Unix, Unix - AT&T UNIX Systems & descendants, Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems, Unix - Impact, Unix - Branding, Unix - Canonical Unix Commands, Unix - Sources Read more here: » Unix: Encyclopedia II - Unix - Free Unix-like operating systems |
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| | | | | Multics: Encyclopedia II - Computer security - Computer security by design There are two different approaches to security in computing. One focuses mainly on external threats, and generally treats the computer system itself as a trusted system. This philosophy is discussed in the computer insecurity article.
The other, discussed in this article, regards the computer system itself as largely an untrusted system, and redesigns it to make it more secure in a number of ways.
This technique enforces privilege separation, where an entity has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, ev ...
See also:Computer security, Computer security - Computer security by design, Computer security - Early history of security by design, Computer security - Techniques for creating secure systems, Computer security - Capabilities vs. ACLs, Computer security - Other uses of the term trusted, Computer security - Notable persons in computer security Read more here: » Computer security: Encyclopedia II - Computer security - Computer security by design |
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